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A glimpse into the great ancient Western and Eastern civilizations, America's
history before and after Columbus, Indian and Chinese kingdoms and empires.
The Mongol Empire invaded Kievan Rus' in the 13th century,
destroying numerous cities, including Ryazan, Kolomna, Moscow, Vladimir, and
Kiev, part of the Mongol invasion of Europe.
The campaign was heralded by the Battle of the Kalka River
in 1223, which resulted in a Mongol victory over the forces of several Rus'
principalities. The Mongols nevertheless retreated. A full-scale invasion of
Rus' by Batu Khan followed, from 1237 to 1240. The invasion was ended by the
Mongol succession process upon the death of Ögedei Khan. All Rus'
principalities were forced to submit to Mongol rule and became part of the
Golden Horde empire, some of which lasted until 1480.
The invasion, facilitated by the beginning breakup of Kievan
Rus' in the 13th century, had incalculable ramifications for the history of
Eastern Europe, including the division of the East Slavic people into three
separate nations, modern-day Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, and in the rise
of the Grand Duchy of Moscow.
The Viking Deception - History Documentary; Vinland Map, NOVA's program, Vikings Discovery of America, Full Documentary: Viking and the Americas
ea-faring Danes depicted invading England. Illuminated illustration from the 12th century Miscellany on the Life of St. Edmund. Pierpont Morgan Library.
Ever since its sensational unveiling by Yale University scholars in
October 1965, the Vinland Map has been a lightning rod for passionate
debate. Most reviews of the arguments, including NOVA's program, have
focused on scientific tests designed to gauge the authenticity of the
map's ink. The opinions of experts in cartography and historical
manuscripts have commanded much less attention, yet from the outset
scholars in these disciplines pointed out glaring anomalies in the case
for the Vinland Map's authenticity. (To inspect the map, see The Map in
Question.)
Most striking of all, the coasts of Greenland and
Iceland are suspiciously close to their outlines in a modern atlas. Yet
none of the Icelandic sagas identifies Greenland as an island, and
archeological discoveries indicate that Viking colonists, hunters, and
traders explored Greenland's west coast perhaps as far north as Thule
and Cape York, but no farther. Even a century or two after the supposed
date of the Vinland Map, European mapmakers were still divided about how
to draw Greenland—as an island, part of an arctic landmass, or a
peninsula dangling down from northern Europe. The precision of the
outlines of Greenland and Iceland is all the more surprising when
compared to the Vinland Map's depiction of the Viking homelands in
Scandinavia, which are barely recognizable: Sweden has migrated to the
wrong side of the Baltic while Norway has been flipped to match the
map's overall egg-shaped design.
Did the Vikings make maps?
Could
the accuracy of the Vinland Map be testimony to the Vikings'
extraordinary seamanship and mapmaking skills? Did the alleged medieval
author of the map use an earlier Viking map as a source of information?
Unquestionably, the Vikings were the most audacious and accomplished
voyagers of the medieval world. Their sleek, clinker-built longships and
bulkier cargo boats had reached Iceland during the 9th century A.D. and
Greenland during the 10th, leading to permanent colonies and regular
trade with the Scandinavian homelands. Beginning in 1961, the excavation
of longhouses and typical Norse artifacts at L'Anse aux Meadows in
Newfoundland proved that Greenland settlers had reached North America,
ju
Such far-flung voyages of discovery demanded special
navigation skills. An Icelandic codex known as Hauksbok details signs
such as the appearance of whales, seabirds, and distant mountain peaks
that voyagers would watch for as they crossed the open ocean. Viking
sailors may also have developed simple astronomical aids, such as
steering by the sun or the Pole Star, although there is no firm evidence
for these practices. But however accomplished their seamanship, the
Vikings never seem to have charted the coastlines they explored. Despite
the detailed navigational texts and abundant geographical references in
the sagas, no Norse cartographic drawing or engraving has survived.
They don't appear to have been mapmakers at all.
The colorful
Icelandic tales of Leif Eriksson and his followers did inspire European
mapmakers to create North American charts identifying features mentioned
in the stories, such as Markland, Helluland, and Vinland. But this
interest in the sagas only took off during the 16th and 17th
centuries—long after the purported mid-15th-century date of the Vinland
Map. Beginning around 1570, Protestant mapmakers began incorporating new
knowledge of the Americas based on pioneering Portuguese and English
voyages of discovery. A strong motive for documenting the earlier Norse
traditions of settlement was to repudiate Catholic maps and territorial
claims defined by papal treaties. But even the most detailed of these
maps, such as the Resen Map of 1605, appears to have been mainly an
exercise in fantasy.
Credits:
The Forger's Inspiration by Evan Hadingham http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/vinland/inspiration.html
History of Canada, History Documentary: Canada, A Peoples History, Canada's Inuit History
The First Nations (French: Premières Nations) are the
various Aboriginal peoples in Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis. There
are currently 634 recognized First Nations governments or bands spread
across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and
British Columbia. The total population is more than 850,000 people. Under
the Employment Equity Act, First Nations are a "designated group",
along with women, visible minorities, and people with physical or mental disabilities.
First Nations are not defined as a visible minority under the Act or by the
criteria of Statistics Canada.
Within Canada, "First Nations" (most often used in
the plural) has come into general use—replacing the deprecated term
"Indians"—for the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Individuals
using the term outside Canada include supporters of the Cascadian independence
movement as well as American tribes within the Pacific Northwest. The singular,
commonly used on culturally politicized reserves, is the term First Nations
person (when gender-specific, First Nations man or First Nations woman). A more
recent trend is for members of various nations to refer to themselves by their
tribal or national identity only, e.g., "I'm Haida," or "We're
Kwantlens," in recognition of the distinctiveness of First Nations
ethnicities.
North American indigenous peoples have cultures spanning
thousands of years. Some of their oral traditions accurately describe
historical events, such as the Cascadia Earthquake of 1700 and the 18th century
Tseax Cone eruption. Written records began with the arrival of European
explorers and colonists during the Age of Discovery, beginning in the late 15th
century. European accounts by trappers, traders, explorers, and
missionaries give important evidence of early contact culture. In addition,
archeological and anthropological research, as well as linguistics, have helped
scholars piece together understanding of ancient cultures and historic peoples.
Although not without conflict or slavery, Euro-Canadians'
early interactions with First Nations, Métis, and Inuit populations were less
combative compared to the often violent battles between colonists and native
peoples in the United States. Combined with later economic development, this
relatively non-combative history has allowed First Nations peoples to have an
influence on the national culture, while preserving their own identities.
Credits: Wikipedia
Monument to aboriginal war veterans in Confederation Park, Ottawa, Canada.
